Heralded as an early pioneer of the Harlem Renaissance, Claude McKay (1889-1948) is often included in the African-American literary canon. On the surface, his poetry, with its focus on issues of racism and exclusion, seems to fit neatly into this category. Recent scholarship, however, highlights the need to situate McKay in a context of transnational migration to America. [1] Born and raised in rural Jamaica, McKay did not move to the United States until his twenties. As such, his poetry does not capture the voice of an African American, but rather that of a West Indian immigrant who fits into the American conception of blackness. In this essay I apply this voice to McKay's poems “America” (1919) and “The White House” (1922). Reading these poems from the perspective of a Black immigrant navigating new geopolitical and social divisions, I analyze how the speaker in each poem must compromise their sense of self to stay afloat in a new land. I propose that by writing about experiences applicable to both black immigrants and African Americans, McKay lays out a roadmap for mutual understanding between these diasporic communities. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original Essay When read from the perspective of a black immigrant, “America” quickly takes on a tone of disillusionment with the American dream. The poem opens with a series of metaphors that outline the opportunity costs of coming to the United States. While the country "feeds" the President, the food is "bitter bread". Likewise, as America offers him opportunities, “it sinks its tiger tooth into his throat, / stealing the breath of life.” The tiger, an African animal, is a significant symbol because, unlike the eagle or some other patriotic image, it reverses the stereotype of the savage black man. In this way we are able to imagine the subhuman pain inflicted on the black immigrant's body through the lens of the very animalistic image used to subjugate people of African descent. Despite this, the President "confesses" that he "loves this cultured hell that tests my youth." For a Jamaican poet of the early 1900s, America, and especially Harlem, was "cultured" because it provided black artists opportunity and community. At the same time, intense racism made the country “hell.” Indeed, for many West Indian immigrants from predominantly black countries, the American racial climate and the one-drop rule were quite challenging. Ramesh and Rani (2006) place McKay within this pattern of immigration from the West Indies to Harlem: “Coming from a socially classified black class system, these non-white immigrants abhorred the brutal racism prevalent in the United States… Furthermore , the cultural baggage they brought with them from the West Indies prevented them from assimilating into traditional African-American life. Proud to be British citizens, these black West Indians claimed that racism did not exist in their islands. McKay also stated that there was no racial problem in Jamaica. In a letter to James Weldon Johnson observed, "In my village I grew up on equal terms with white, mulatto, and black children of every race because my father was a great farmer and belonged." The difference on the island is economic, not social'” (66). This historical note helps clarify the love-hate relationship with America that develops throughout the poem, particularly as the President confronts the dichotomy between the nation's proclaimed ideals and its xenophobia andracism. McKay writes, “His vigor flows like tides through my blood, / giving me the strength to resist his hatred.” The image of blood, reminiscent of the one drop rule, suggests a process of Americanization: embodying America's ideals of freedom and addressing its racialization to sustain its existence in the country. In this way, America gave him the tools to fight his hatred. Going forward, the President clarifies this impulse, likening himself to a “rebel” facing “a king in state.” In other words, his presence in a country that opposes him is by nature anti-hegemonic and constitutes a form of resistance. Alluding to national borders, he continues: “I am within its walls without a shred / Of terror, malice, without a word of derision.” Moving to a new country and staying within its “walls” without feeling fear suggests great strength and power. As such, an immigrant's very impulse to survive is constructed as a radical act of rebellion. The final lines of the poem indicate a shift in temporal focus as the Speaker considers his future. Looking “darkly” at the “days to come”, the future appears bleak and nebulous. As he imagines the “granite wonders” – perhaps monuments to the “greatness” of the country – slowly sinking into the ground, I am struck by the image of sand. Quicksand is a stealth killer that attacks from below, restricts movement, and eventually cuts through the air. The image of sinking monuments parallels the slow but disheartening realization that the American dream was a fiction. Calling the “marvels of granite” “priceless treasures” is ironic. They were never built for immigrants or blacks, but on their backs. As idealism fades under the “unerring hand of Time,” oppression becomes evident and the need for rebellion increases. While “America” champions the inherent combative nature of Black and West Indian immigrants in America, the “White House” celebrates the strength of these immigrants in the face of hate. Like “America,” it deals with borders, but here they take the form of a door “closed against” the President’s “tense face.” In other words: segregation. Despite the dehumanizing event of being excluded, the President demonstrates incredible “courage and strength.” Instead of lashing out, he keeps his emotions internal. Coming from a predominantly black country, he would not have experienced institutionalized segregation before coming to America. As such, his will is tested by the titular White House, which serves as both a symbol of segregation (a house literally owned by whites) and a metonym for the American government. Despite this, the President emerges as the stronger person, expressing only “discontent” at the hatred embodied by the closed door. It is not that the President lacks the emotional capacity to express outrage, but rather that resilience in a foreign land is appreciated, even if the self is compromised. He feels both “anger” and “passion” tearing his “vitals” apart. However, it suppresses these emotions, holding them in the stomach. The burning of his feet on the “pavement slab” only serves to exacerbate this internal pain. We might imagine that writing the poem is his way of dealing with injustice. In real life, he might be considered “an irritating savage” on a “decent street.” But in the poem, we might ask who is truly dignified and wild – a role reversal that complements the image of the tiger in “America.” In the poem, we can realize that only cruel people would build “glass” doors: social divisions that segregate the oppressed, but also force them to observe inequality from a distance. In the face of such cruelty, the strength of the black immigrant is a marvel. In fact, as the poem.