IndexIntroductionThe Desalination ProcessAdverse Effects on Marine BiotaEnergy Efficiency ConcernsCurrent Management StrategiesIsrael-Palestine Case StudyConclusionIntroductionAs global warming grips the planet and prolonged drought strikes in many areas, the citizens and their governments are trying to provide populations with safe sources of fresh water. While desalination has been available for decades, communities have only recently had the resources to embrace its implementation. I want to examine the environmental impacts of desalination because the consequences of freshwater extraction processes have not yet been fully recognized. What would international and national desalination regulations look like if more and more countries entered drought and acquired the technology to desalinate (Schriber 23-28)? Arid areas that rely on desalinated water have been shown to burden poorer communities, particularly in the case of Israel and Palestine (Elmusa 12). I intend to use these countries as a case study to exemplify how governments and private companies can complicate the process of distributing clean water to a population. Negative effects are also present in marine biota and in greenhouse gas emissions. Before considering desalination as a viable and sustainable source of fresh drinking water it is extremely necessary to consider its multiple long-lasting effects on the environment (The Impacts of Relying on Desalination for Water). Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essay This document is intended to reach the Joint High-Level Panel on Water composed of members of the World Bank and the United Nations. They work on policies, effective actions and implementation of responsible treatment of the world's water resources. The first part of the article will serve to provide a solid scientific background detailing the desalination process, a concept of which it is important to have a basic understanding before judging its usefulness. This will be followed by a scientific analysis of the effects of desalination on both marine life and energy consumption. Next will be the policy section of the document which will include recommendations regarding regulations to limit this environmental health problem and those already in place. This will include the Israel-Palestine case study which will serve to show how critical desalination can be to a public health issue. The Desalination Process Reverse osmosis is a desalination process used in 80% of the world's desalination plants and is expected to be the main ongoing process. forward (Greenlee). The most common alternative is to use a distillation process (Greenlee). Not all reverse osmosis systems work exactly the same; however the basic functions and steps are generally similar. They have been available for over 40 years, so with technological improvements the materials and design vary slightly from plant to plant (Contruvo). The water is drawn through suction pipes that reach the ocean along the seabed. It subsequently undergoes a pre-treatment process which involves the addition of acid and coagulants/flocculants. The acid (usually sulfuric acid) serves to increase the solubility of common precipitates present in feed water. Coagulants/flocculants help neutralize the charge of the water and draw suspended particles together so they are filtered more easily (Greenlee). After this pretreatment the water filters through a filter using gravityor it is pressurized. The media filter is made up of layers of materials such as sand, gravel and carbon layered from finer to coarser material for drainage purposes. Then the water flows through cartridge filtration which removes the few remaining large particles missed by the media filter. Oxidizing agents are then added to disinfect the water as the last step in the desalination pretreatment process (Greenlee, Darwish). After pretreatment, the most energy-intensive part of reverse osmosis takes place. The water is pressurized through a semi-permeable membrane composed of cellulose acetate, polysulfonate and polyamide. Primarily water is allowed to pass through because the hydrostatic pressure of the membrane is higher than the osmotic pressure of the aqueous solution, meaning that water can diffuse across the membrane while much of the salt is unable to do so. In some plants this process is repeated because it can be particularly difficult to remove some contaminants such as boron which is rejected by the membrane only at a percentage of 75-80%, while salt is rejected at a percentage of 99.7%. The water temperature and therefore the season can also affect the effectiveness of the reverse osmosis membrane (Greenlee). The membrane is prone to problems due to the strenuous use to which it is subjected. The membrane can become less effective because it is essentially clogged with organic matter, particulates, dissolved inorganic salts and other contaminants. When these precipitates accumulate in the layers of the membrane, it is necessary to clean it with chemicals to return it to its full operational state (Cotruvo). The water then continues beyond the reverse osmosis stage for post-treatment. There it is remineralized. Alkalinity and pH are often changed to increase the hardness of water, both for taste and to prevent corrosion of water infrastructure. Usually fluoride is added and the water is disinfected again. These components vary depending on the drinking water standards for the location and distribution area of ​​the desalination plant (Greenlee). The fresh water enters the reservoirs and holding tanks and is ultimately distributed as clean drinking water. The salt water is discharged into the ocean far away from the site where it is drawn into the plant. This discharge is the main source of concern for the impact of the desalination plant on ocean flora and fauna (Danoun). Negative effects on marine biota In the desalination process, fresh water is derived from salt water by separating the salt from the water (Cotruvo). The concentrated salt mixture left after the process is called brine and is often discharged back into the ocean. Marine life has been shown to be negatively affected by high levels of salinity. Wind speed and direction, wave height and speed, and tide levels all influence the rate at which brine is diluted lowering the danger zone for aquatic life (Danoun, 20). The high salinity, alkalinity, and temperature of the brine change the components of the ocean water they enter (Danoun, 21). You need to consider the negative and positive results of these few factors when planning the brine discharge system for a desalination plant. Many studies have been conducted to determine the effect of brine discharge on marine life. Studies are often site specific and therefore vary in results. A common conclusion from all the studies reviewed for this article is that brine discharge definitely has an effect on ocean species (Robert, 3). Approximately 50% of the water absorbed by the system is recovered as waterdrinkable, which means that half of the water taken is sent back to the sea (Latterman, 3). The salt water that leaves the desalination plant waste stream often contains residual chemicals from the desalination process, byproducts and heavy metals. These contaminants can affect marine ecosystems near the outlet (Latterman, 5). “Adverse effects on the marine environment can occur especially when high wastewater discharges coincide with sensitive ecosystems (Latterman, 5).” Marine life in shallow areas without much ocean movement tends to be more affected because the salt water does not disperse as quickly as it does in a high-energy part of the ocean (Latterman, 6). The impact of increased salinity varies from species to species. to the species. Research has been conducted on many types, however more case-control experiments are needed to fully determine the effects. Shellfish tend to thrive in environments with higher levels of salt, while juvenile fish populations move away from these high levels (Danoun 27). The high salinity in many cases kills young plankton (Danoun, 27). It has been shown that brine discharge can alter the diversity and richness of species in areas near the discharge site (Roberts). This result can be traced back to the conclusion that high levels of salinity may benefit some species to the detriment of others. Furthermore, to monitor the marine biota near the actual dispersal sites, laboratory studies were conducted on individual species. For example, algae exposed to high levels of salinity over the course of 24 hours had levels of photosynthesis reduced by up to 50% (Roberts). Experiments have also shown that brine can be toxic to some types of fish embryos if exposed at an early age due to contaminants left in the solution after reverse osmosis (Latterman, 11). In summary, the combination of high salinity, contaminants, and saltwater temperature impacts marine ecosystems in ways that have not yet been fully realized. Studies and experiments conducted at specific sites address the impacts of some desalination plants, the policy section of the document will highlight the importance of this information regarding measures to be taken to reduce these disturbances. Energy Efficiency Concerns A common concern about desalination is its energy efficiency, to which financial sustainability is linked. Almost every year the amount of energy needed to desalinate water decreases due to technological advances and research (Elimelech). However, water desalination still consumes large amounts of energy that comes from unsustainable resources such as fossil fuels. Nuclear energy-powered water desalination has been implemented in some facilities around the world, but although the technology has been thoroughly tested it is still largely unreliable (Nuclear Energy Institute). Even with extensive work to improve reverse osmosis, the method currently used to desalinate water, the process still requires much more energy than is theoretically needed to separate the salt from the water. Alternative methods such as phased membrane operation, cyclic desalination and ion concentration polarization (Elimelech) are being pursued. A current problem that is not specific to desalination is the fact that for the most part, renewable energy still costs more than fossil fuels. Plants currently using alternative energy sources are small scale and often do not operate full time (Greenlee). Lauren Greenlee writes about today's problems in implementing theDesalination: Communities that would typically benefit from coupled renewable energy and RO [reverse osmosis] systems are located in rural areas, where financial resources and personnel to maintain the system are limited. Factors including the cost of capital, sustainable technology, technical operation, social acceptance and availability of energy resources, have contributed to the slow growth of the renewable energy – RO (Greenlee) market. In isolated and poor areas affected by drought, renewable energy combined with desalination would be a great step towards providing clean drinking water to all populations. Alternative energy sources include solar, wind, and geothermal (Greenlee). Desalination is still under development and is becoming more energy efficient. The process involves trade-offs. Investing in better infrastructure and membranes saves energy, however the initial investment is higher (Greenlee). Creating better membranes would allow for more relaxed pre-treatment and post-treatment, substantially reducing the cost, energy and environmental impact of desalination (Elimelech). These membranes are difficult to develop because they must be highly selective and not clog to allow only water to pass (Elimelech). Financial schemes to encourage the construction of renewable energy and more efficient desalination plants have been offered as construction subsidies that could eventually be repaid with money saved on fuel (Guidelines for the Regulation of Desalination). Current Management Strategies Currently the state of California is currently the leading and best model for desalination management as far as government action is concerned. The state has a water resources control board that monitors plans to protect water sources. Specifically, the council created a policy regarding new desalination plants on the California coast after it was identified as a problem in 2011. A desalination amendment was added in 2015 to allow ocean water to be a resource for fresh drinking water while still ensuring the health of the ocean is maintained. This amendment includes a consistent permitting process so that local municipalities are able to assess and evaluate the environmental health impacts of a desalination plant (Oceanic Standards). The board emphasized its goal of providing reliable fresh water for the entire state of California. This goal is also considered extremely important by many states, countries and citizens. The solutions to achieve this goal are there, and the Water Resources Control Board articulates how they should be implemented as it pertains specifically to desalination. “To be sustainable, solutions must balance the need to ensure public health and safety, protect the environment and support a stable economy. Desalination is no exception” (Oceanic Standards). In addition to the uniform permitting process, the Desalination Amendment also includes mandates for consistent monitoring of facility impacts and maximum salinity levels for brine discharge from facilities (Oceanic Standards). The success of California's policy regarding desalination plants has yet to be fully realized because this amendment was adopted just over a year ago. The key part is that the negative impacts of desalination are weighed against the positive ones to create effective regulations. With drought and desalination inincrease, the Water Resources Control Board will certainly continue to adapt and develop policies related to new water resources. The reason this policy document is addressed to the Joint High Level Panel on Water is because a permitting process similar to the one in California also has merit internationally. The ocean is an entity shared among all nations so it is feasible that it could be regulated as such by the United Nations and the World Bank. In 2010, the United Nations declared that access to clean water is a human right because clean water is necessary for the realization of all major human rights. This resolution was passed to support the United Nations Millennium Development Goals; eight goals aimed at improving the quality of life internationally and guaranteeing human rights (Water and sanitation). If desalination is to become a more important part of this plan, then its environmental, social and political effects must be fully considered and analysed. This document aimed to bring to light some of these issues in the previous sections and highlight the need to create a policy proposal relating to the construction of desalination plants. Drawing on previous studies on the environmental impacts of these facilities and examining their policy implications; This document highlights the importance of considering alternatives to desalination and recommending serious studies before a desalination plant is built on a given site. Ensuring safe drinking water supplies around the world also requires considering the long-lasting environmental impacts potentially created by relying on these facilities. Israel-Palestine Case StudyThe conflict between Israel and Palestine has lasted for decades and no final solution has been reached. The conflict over water is an issue that makes peace agreements between Israel and Palestine so difficult to reach. Water, a necessary resource for life, makes the tensions between these two states even more tumultuous than they would otherwise be (Finklestein). Desalination has been taking place in Israel for decades, however it has recently acquired a greater impact due to a growing population and less rainfall. Four large plants have come into operation in the last ten years, and it is expected that by 2020 seventy percent of Israel's drinking water will come from them (Lev). The government still closely controls water in Israeli-occupied areas and for this reason Palestinians cannot directly benefit from desalination and conservation efforts. This is a circumstance in which desalination does not totally improve the situation of all those affected by the lack of drinking water (Francisco). This infographic from the Institute for Middle Eastern Understanding is intended to exemplify the disparity in access to water in a geographically proximate area due to government policies. It is not intended to target Israel, but rather to serve as an example of how politics can shape access to fresh water. That is, there are ways in which water is allocated at the government level that have nothing to do with lack of the resource, but rather with control of the resource. Due to the arid climate of Israel and Palestine, water has always been a hot topic. Since 1939, Israeli water has been controlled by a government organization called Mekorot. After the United Nations attempted to divide the territory to end the conflict in 1947 and after the Six-Day War in 1968, the disputed territory in the area was relegated to the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. These areas are all currently occupied by.